Persecution of Biharis in Bangladesh

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A map showing the distribution of Urdu-speaking Bihari communities in Bangladesh.

The Bihari minority in Bangladesh have experienced widespread discrimination. Within Bangladesh, the term Bihari implies the Urdu-speaking migrants from the Indian state of Bihar who settled in East Pakistan after the partition of India in 1947. Later on, all Urdu-speaking people, including Punjabis, Pathans, Sindhis and Baloch from West Pakistan, who were posted to East Pakistan or settled there were often labeled as Biharis by Bengalis.[1][2]

Biharis opposed the Bengali language movement of the people of then East Pakistan in the 1950s which stoked anti-Bihari sentiment. During the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, they largely maintained a pro-Pakistani stance, supported the Pakistan Armed Forces and opposed the independence of Bangladesh. Many Biharis became collaborators or accomplices of pro-government paramilitary groups in Pakistan Army's Bengali genocide which led to mass reprisal killings of Biharis.[3][4][5][6][7] Mass murders of Biharis by Bengalis in 1971 have been dubbed as "Bihari genocide" by several academics.[8][9]

Many migrated to Pakistan prior to, during and in the aftermath of the war. Those that remained have since assimilated into the Bengali population of Bangladesh though a significant number of them are still located in refugee camps across Bangladesh and are known as "Stranded Pakistanis".[10] According to one estimate, at least 250,000 Biharis reside in urban refugee camps in Bangladesh.[11] These Biharis have faced institutionalised discrimination linked to their citizenship status,[12] and many live in squalor conditions.[13]

Background[edit | edit source]

The 1947 partition of India displaced between 12 and 18 million people.[14] Millions of Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan while millions of Hindus and Sikhs migrated from Pakistan to India.[15]

Along with several other parts of British India, Bihar (now a state in eastern India) was plagued by communal violence between Muslims and Hindus due to partition.[16] Thousands of Bihari Muslims were killed in October and November 1946, the All-India Muslim League organized the rehabilitation of the Bihari refugees in Sind. The arrival of Bihari refugees in camps in Sindh and Bengal in 1946 paralleled the later movement of refugees in 1947.[17] It is estimated that up to one million eventually migrated to East Pakistan.[18]

History[edit | edit source]

1971 Bangladesh war[edit | edit source]

One reason cited for communal violence between Biharis and Bengalis was Bengali opposition to Urdu as a national language, which resulted in the Bengali language movement. The relatively secular attitude of East Pakistan increased tensions between the two communities and the two provinces of the country.[19] In the 1970 general elections, Biharis predominantly supported the mostly Pakistan People's Party (based in West Pakistan) over the All-Pakistan Awami League (based in East Pakistan and overwhelmingly supported by Bengalis) and played an active anti-secessionist role during the liberation war.[18]

Biharis supported the Pakistan Armed Forces during the subsequent Bangladesh Liberation War, comprising majorities in armed paramilitary groups such as Al-Shams, Razakars and Al-Badr which were responsible for the genocidal campaign against Bengali nationalists and both Bengali Hindu and Bengali Muslim civilians.[3]

In early March 1971, 300 Biharis were killed. The Santahar massacre of Biharis was perpetrated by the Mukti Bahini, the Bengali resistance force, and Bengali mobs.[20] This was used by the Pakistan Army as a justification to launch Operation Searchlight against the Bengali nationalist movement.[21]

Biharis were also massacred in Jessore and Khulna.[22]

The magnitude of anti-Bihari attacks by Bengalis throughout the war are contested. The Minorities at Risk project puts the number of Biharis killed during the war at 1,000. Bengali sources admit the death of as many as 30,000 or 40,000 non-Bengalis.[23][24] International estimates vary from 20,000 to 200,000.[24] According to a white paper released by the Pakistani government, 64,000 Biharis and West Pakistanis were killed.[25] The US Consul estimated 66,000 deaths.[26]

In June 1971, Bihari representatives claimed a figure of 500,000 Biharis were killed.[23] Although, according to the available census data of that time, the total Bihari population was approximately 1 million in East and West Pakistan in 1970 with the majority living in East Pakistan, approximately 300,000 left Bangladesh before and immediately after the beginning of the Liberation War to avoid reprisal attacks.[23][27]

Scholars such as R. J. Rummel and Matthew White estimate the death toll of Bengali civilians killed during Pakistan Army's genocidal campaign at 1.5 million.[28][29] And Rummel, a historian with the University of Hawaiʻi, concludes a prudent figure of 150,000 Bihari civilians murdered by Bengali militias in retaliation.[27][28]

According to historian Christian Gerlach, many scholars have used the wartime actions of Biharis to understate/marginalize and/or justify atrocities against non-Bengalis or to suppress the memory of atrocities committed against them.[23] Ishrat Ferdousi, a researcher on 1971 atrocities, said the attacks on Biharis can be termed "genocide".[30] Sarmila Bose in her book 2011 Dead Reckoning: Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War argues that Bengalis are in a state of denial about the massacre.[30][31][32] The Liberation War Museum of Bangladesh has downplayed such massacres, calling them "isolated incidents."[33]

Aftermath[edit | edit source]

Mukti Bahini members also retaliated against non-Bengalis (primarily West Pakistanis and Biharis) in the aftermath of the Bangladesh Liberation War, such retaliatory actions resulted in killings.[34] In March 1972, thousands of Biharis were killed in the 1972 Khulna massacres by Bengali mobs.[35][33]

2014 Kalshi clashes[edit | edit source]

In 2014, members of the ruling Awami League, aided by police clashed with the members of the Urdu speaking community in Kalshi, Mirpurover land issues.[36] During these clashes, nine people including eight members of a family were burnt alive by Awami League and their supporters.[37]

The Biharis blamed the attacks being directed by Elias Mollah, the ethnic Bengali lawmaker of Mirpur.[38] Elias Mollah denied involvement and blamed a "vested conspiracy" against him.[39]

Immigration, citizenship and reconciliation efforts [edit | edit source]

Main articles: Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh and Muhajir (Pakistan)

Due to their initial pro-Pakistan stance, the Biharis were consistent in their wish to be repatriated to Pakistan. Initially, 83,000 Biharis (58,000 former civil servants and military personnel), members of divided families and 25,000 hardship cases were evacuated to Pakistan.[40]

The Supreme Court of Bangladesh ruled Biharis eligible for Bangladesh citizenship in 1972,[4][41] and the Bangladesh government announced Presidential Order 149 (1972), offering citizenship to Biharis. According to government sources 600,000 Biharis accepted the offer, and 539,669 opted to return to Pakistan.[42] According to historian Partha S. Ghosh approximately 470,000 out of these were repatriated to Pakistan through the International Red Cross.[40][43] According to a United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) report 170,000 Biharis were accepted by Pakistan in the Delhi Agreement, and by 1974, 108,000 had been transferred to Pakistan (mainly by air); however, the repatriation process later stalled.[44] Surur Hoda, a socialist leader, played an active role in solving the refugee crisis. He organized a delegation, headed by British Labour Party politicians David Ennals and Ben Whitaker, which encouraged many refugees to return to Pakistan.[45]

In 1977, 4,790 families were repatriated. The government of Pakistan later stepped away from their promise of repatriation and in 1978 stripped Pakistanis remaining in Bangladesh of Pakistani citizenship.[41] Researchers such as Sumit Sen maintain that the Pakistani government's denationalisation of the Biharis and reluctance to rehabilitate them in Pakistan are sufficient evidence of persecution to warrant refugee status.[46]

Though 2,800 still immigrated to Pakistan in 1979; 7,000 in 1981; 6,000 in 1984; and 50 families in 1993.[47]

By 1982, Pakistan had received 169,000 Biharis. A total of approximately 178,069 Biharis were repatriated to Pakistan between 1973 and 1993.[48][49][50] Of these, under the supervision of the UNHCR, over 119,000 Biharis were airlifted to Pakistan.[51] Some Biharis also entered Pakistan through illegal means.[51]

In 1988, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) raised about $500 million for the repatriation and rehabilitation of Biharis to Pakistan.[52] A special committee, the Rabita (Coordination) Trust Board, was formed by Pakistan President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. It received $14 million by 1992, and was requesting additional donations from Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states for the rehabilitation of Biharis.[53] Land allocated to Biharis in Pakistan in one colony in Mian Channu is now a slum.[54] The Biharis were targeted by the ethnic Sindhi people during the 1980s Karachi riots.[55]

Both countries have signed agreements on the repatriation of stateless people, but only a few hundred have reportedly managed to go to Pakistan. Organisations such as Refugees International have urged both governments to "grant citizenship to the hundreds of thousands of people who remain without effective nationality".[56] As of 2006, the UNHCR had not addressed the plight of the Biharis.[56]

During his 2002 trip to Bangladesh, Pakistan president Pervez Musharraf said he sympathised with the plight of the Biharis but could not allow them to emigrate to Pakistan.[57] Several groups in Pakistan have since urged their government to accept the Biharis.[58][59]

In May 2003, a High Court ruling in Bangladesh allowed ten Bihari refugees to obtain citizenship and voting rights.[60] The ruling exposed a generation gap among Biharis. Younger Biharis were described as "elated" but many older people felt "despair at the enthusiasm" and said their true home was in Pakistan.[61] Many Biharis now seek greater civil rights and citizenship in Bangladesh.[62]

On 19 May 2008, the High Court approved citizenship and voting rights for about 150,000 refugees who were minors at the time of Bangladesh's 1971 war of independence. Those born in the country since the war also gained citizenship and the right to vote.[63][64] Several political parties campaigned in the camps for the Bihari vote during the 2008 general election, and the group was considered important to parties and candidates.[65] Although the court ruling explicitly said that the Biharis are eligible to register to vote in the December 2008 elections, the Election Commission closed its rolls in August 2008 without enrolling them.[66]

Refugee camps[edit | edit source]

The refugee camps housing Biharis have become slums, the largest of which, known as "Geneva Camp" in Mohammadpur, Dhaka, with over 25,000 people, is crowded and undeveloped; families up to 10 people typically live in a single room, one latrine is shared by 90 families and no more than five percent of the population has a formal education. Due to the lack of educational opportunity and poor living conditions, young men in the slums have set up an "Urdu Bhashi Jubo Chhatro Shongothon" (lit. 'Urdu-Speaking Young Students Association') to increase educational opportunities in their community.[67] Health and sanitation problems persist due to poor drainage and sewage systems, and the economic condition of Bihari refugees has been described in news reports and academic journals as extremely poor.[67]

The refugee camps housing Biharis, particularly the Geneva Camp, have frequently been reported as focal points for organized criminal activity, including drug trafficking and teen gangs.[68] Due to extreme overcrowding, these settlements have faced significant challenges regarding policing and governance.[69]

Reports from Bangladeshi media indicate that specific camps have become hubs for the narcotics trade, particularly involving Yaba and heroin. In late 2024, following the political transition in Bangladesh, the Geneva Camp witnessed intensified armed clashes between rival factions vying for control over the local drug trade.[70] Most of the teen gangs plaguing Mohammadpur are controlled by the Bihari demographic and a disproportionate number of their members are of this demographic.[71]

See also[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ Redclift, Victoria (2017). "The demobilization of diaspora: history, memory and 'latent identity'". Global Networks. 17 (4): 500–517.
  2. ↑ Hali, S. M. (30 March 2022). "The plight of Biharis". Business Recorder. Retrieved 19 July 2024.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 BGA Report, Bangladesh Genocide Archive. Retrieved 17 June 2025.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Khan, Borhan Uddin; Rahman, Muhammad Mahbubur (2010). Hofmann, Rainer; Caruso, Ugo (eds.). Minority Rights in South Asia. Peter Lang. p. 101. ISBN 978-3631609163.
  5. ↑ Moss, Peter (2005). Secondary Social Studies For Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780195977042. OCLC 651126824.
  6. ↑ "Citizenship for Bihari refugees". BBC News. 19 May 2008. Archived from the original on 25 July 2017.
  7. ↑ van Schendel, Willem (2009). A History of Bangladesh. Cambridge University Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-316-26497-3. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
  8. ↑ Qasmi, Ali Usman (October 2023). "Sorry for what? Asking the right questions about the Bangladeshi liberation war and Pakistan's military operation in 1971". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 33 (4): 871–897. doi:10.1017/S1356186322000839. ISSN 1356-1863.
  9. ↑ "Listening to the Subaltern: Oral Histories of the 1971 Bihari Refugees".
  10. ↑ "Biharis". Minority Rights Group International. Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
  11. ↑ "Biharis of Bangladesh, World Directory of Minorities". Faqs.org. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
  12. ↑ Bradley, Megan (2013). Refugee Repatriation: Justice, Responsibility and Redress. Cambridge University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-107-02631-5. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
  13. ↑ Bremen Donovan (2014)"'Stranded Pakistanis' living in camps in Bangladesh – in pictures". The Guardian. 11 August 2014. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016.
  14. ↑ Kibria, Nazli (2011). Muslims in Motion: Islam and National Identity in the Bangladeshi Diaspora. Rutgers University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8135-5055-8.
  15. ↑ Waseem, Mohammad (2005). "Causes of Democratic Downslide in Pakistan". In Kukreja, Veena; Singh, M P (eds.). Pakistan: Democracy, Development and Security Issues. Sage Publications. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-7619-3416-5.
  16. ↑ Southwick, Catherine (2011). "The Urdu-speakers of Bangladesh: An unfinished story of enforcing citizenship rights". In Blitztor, Brad K.; Lynch, Maureen (eds.). Statelessness and Citizenship: A Comparative Study on the Benefits of Nationality. Edward Elgar. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-84980-067-9.
  17. ↑ Ghosh, Papiya (2001). "The Changing Discourse of the Muhajirs". India International Centre Quarterly. 28 (3): 57–68. JSTOR 23005560.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Prasad, Chunnu (2010). "Refugees and Human Rights: Comparative Studies between Chakmas in India and Biharis in Bangladesh". In Biju, M. R. (ed.). Developmental Issues in Contemporary India. New Delhi: Concept Publishing. p. 246. ISBN 978-81-8069-714-2.
  19. ↑ Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert, eds. (1989). "Pakistan Period (1947–71)". Bangladesh: A Country Study. Government Printing Office, Country Studies US. ISBN 0-16-017720-0. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2007.
  20. ↑ Kamrani, Farrukh (15 December 2017). "Fall of Dhaka: How Mukti Bahini 'cleansed' Santahar town of non-Bengalis". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 27 March 2026.
  21. ↑ D'Costa, Bina (2010). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 978-0415565660.
  22. ↑ Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World. Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-139-49351-2. while 57 [non-Bengalis] were killed in Khulna on March 5.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World. Cambridge University Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-139-49351-2. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Gerlach, Christian (20 July 2018). "East Pakistan/Bangladesh 1971–1972: How Many Victims, Who, and Why?". In Barros, Andrew; Thomas, Martin (eds.). The Civilianization of War: The Changing Civil–Military Divide, 1914–2014. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–130. ISBN 9781108453042. Deaths among 'Biharis' have been variously estimated at between several thousand and over 500,000. Most Bengali estimates range from the low thousands to 40,000; estimates by foreign observers are still more divergent, spanning 20,000 to 200,000. According to official Pakistani figures in a 'White Paper' published in August 1971, more than 100,000 'Biharis' were killed; however, the incidents actually listed in the White Paper amounted to 64,100 deaths, while up to April 1971 just over 20,000 bodies had been found. I accept 20,000 as a minimum figure for the deaths of 'Biharis'; the actual number was probably much higher.
  25. ↑ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 231. ISBN 978-0415486194.
  26. ↑ "Chronology for Biharis in Bangladesh". The Minorities at Risk (MAR) Project. Retrieved 27 March 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Rummel, R.J. (1997). Death by Government. Transaction Publishers. p. 334. ISBN 9781560009276. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Rummel, R. J. "Statistics of Pakistan's Democide". Hawaii.edu. Archived from the original on 21 February 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
  29. ↑ White, Matthew J. The Great Big Book of Horrible Things. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 190.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "Bangladesh war trial sparks rival calls for justice". Dawn. Agence France-Presse. 23 November 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
  31. ↑ "Controversial book accuses Bengalis of 1971 war crimes". BBC News. 16 June 2011. Archived from the original on 8 July 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  32. ↑ "Flying Blind: Waiting for a Real Reckoning on 1971". The Daily Star. 3 October 2011. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Fall of Dhaka: How Mukti Bahini 'cleansed' Santahar town of non-Bengalis". The Express Tribune. 15 December 2017. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
  34. ↑ Dead Reckoning
  35. ↑ "Massacre of Biharis in Bangladesh". The Age. 15 March 1972. Archived from the original on 5 July 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
  36. ↑ Azad, Adib; Shaon, Ashif Islam (18 June 2014). "Mirpur clashes kill 10 Biharis". Dhaka Tribune. Archived from the original on 21 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  37. ↑ "9 burnt dead, another 'gunned down'". The Daily Star (Bangladesh). 14 June 2015. Archived from the original on 19 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  38. ↑ "Biharis point fingers at Elias". The Daily Star (Bangladesh). 16 June 2014. Archived from the original on 29 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  39. ↑ Chowdhury, Kamran Reza (23 June 2014). "Bihari Camp Arson Attack: Elias Mollah denies role". Dhaka Tribune. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Ghosh, Partha S. (2016). Migrants, Refugees and the Stateless in South Asia. SAGE Publications. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-93-5150-855-7.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Ghazali, Abdus Sattar (24 January 2013). "Four decades of sufferings of the stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh". The Milli Gazette. Archived from the original on 22 July 2015.
  42. ↑ Prasad, Chunnu (2010). "Refugees and Human Rights: Comparative Studies between Chakmas in India and Biharis in Bangladesh". In M. R. Biju (ed.). Developmental Issues in Contemporary India. New Delhi: Concept Publishing. p. 247. ISBN 978-81-8069-714-2.
  43. ↑ "Bangladesh: ICRC honoured for helping victims of 1971 conflict". 19 April 2012. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
  44. ↑ "South Asia Forum for Human Rights". SAFHR. 18 April 2013. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
  45. ↑ McRobie, George (30 June 2003). "Surur Hoda". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 August 2013.
  46. ↑ Sumit Sen (1999-2000). Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: The Bihari Refugees of South Asia (Parts 1 & 2), International Journal of Refugee Law Vol.11 No.4 and Vol.12 No.1
  47. ↑ Farzana, Kazi Fahmida (June 2009). "An Artificial Minority: The Stateless Biharis in Bangladesh". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 29 (2): 223–235. doi:10.1080/13602000902943682. S2CID 143009440.
  48. ↑ Hofmann, Rainer; Caruso, Ugo (2011). Minority Rights in South Asia. Peter Lang. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-3-631-60916-3.
  49. ↑ Khan, Borhan Uddin; Rahman, Muhammad Mahbubur (2013). Protection of Minorities: Regimes, Norms and Issues in South Asia. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-1-4438-4571-7.
  50. ↑ Sen, Sumit (2017). "Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: The Bihari Refugees of South Asia - Part 2'". In Crock, Mary (ed.). Refugees and Rights. Taylor & Francis. p. 314. ISBN 978-1-351-90562-6.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Rizvi, H. (1993). Pakistan and the Geostrategic Environment: A Study of Foreign Policy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 34–. ISBN 978-0-230-37984-8.
  52. ↑ Mahmud, Had; Mir, Amir; Tohid, Owais (8 November 1995). "Pakistan's Orphans". Outlook. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  53. ↑ Shah, Mehtab Ali (1997). The Foreign Policy of Pakistan: Ethnic Impacts on Diplomacy 1971–1994. I.B. Tauris. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-86064-169-5. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  54. ↑ "Will Nitish's visit boost Biharis in Pakistan?". The Times of India. Retrieved 5 June 2013.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  55. ↑ "MQM facing extinction". The Nation. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 "Citizens of Nowhere: The Stateless Biharis of Bangladesh". Refugees International. 15 February 2006. Archived from the original on 25 October 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
  57. ↑ "Musharraf wraps up Bangladesh visit". BBC. 31 July 2002. Archived from the original on 4 May 2004.
  58. ↑ Mirza, Abdul Maqsood (28 December 2005). "PRC Wants Urgent Steps for Biharis' Repatriation". Arab News. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
  59. ↑ "MQM demands issuance of CNICs to Biharis". Dawn. 8 February 2004. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
  60. ↑ Rahman, Waliur (6 May 2003). "Vote for 'stranded Pakistanis'". BBC. Archived from the original on 13 September 2007.
  61. ↑ Lawson, Alastair (28 May 2003). "Mixed feelings over Bihari ruling". BBC. Archived from the original on 8 March 2004.
  62. ↑ "Bangladesh: Stateless Biharis Grasp for a Resolution and Their Rights" Archived 21 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Refugees International.
  63. ↑ "Court rules that young Biharis are Bangladesh citizens". Reuters. 18 May 2008. Archived from the original on 25 June 2013.
  64. ↑ Parveen, Shahnaz (26 May 2006). "Citizenship debate comes to end but doubts and worries remain". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
  65. ↑ Manik, Julfikar Ali (26 December 2008). "Parties go innovative to grab Bihari votes". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013.
  66. ↑ "Bangladesh fails to register its Urdu-speaking citizens as voters" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Thaindian. 16 August 2008.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Rafferty, Mark; Gilmer, Anna (17 July 2010). "Bangladesh's forgotten students: The Biharis struggle". Global Post. Archived from the original on 13 April 2011.
  68. ↑ "Inside the drug dens in Geneva Camp". Dhaka Tribune. Retrieved 28 November 2025.
  69. ↑ "BC".
  70. ↑ "Inside Geneva Camp: Where people cower as 2 drug kingpins reign supreme". The Business Standard. 15 November 2024. Retrieved 28 November 2025.
  71. ↑ Express, The Financial. "Teen gang culture a curse for Mohammadpur: DMP". The Financial Express. Retrieved 5 February 2026.

Further reading[edit | edit source]

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